Day Tripping

This week we've been taking a lot of day trips into the field. Rather than spending several days or a week out in the field, we fly out in the morning, spend all day collecting samples, and return to McMurdo in the evening.

Elizabeth and I have gone back to both Lake Fryxell and Lake Bonney on day trips to measure soil respiration. Two weeks ago, water and nutrients were added plots of soil by both lakes. Elizabeth and I went to the plots to learn how much the soil animals were breathing after the additions. We want to know which nutrients make the soil animals breath the most. We took our measurements, and now we have to look at all of the data to answer the question!

We've mostly been working in Taylor Valley. But, there are other valleys in the area that are part of the Dry Valleys. Each valley in the area was formed by different glaciers at different times in history, so the soils in each valley are different. We want to learn more about the other valleys, not just Taylor Valley! So, we took a trip to Wright Valley, which is slightly farther north. It was fun to fly there, because I got to see new parts of the Dry Valleys from the helicopter!We visited two places in Wright Valley. First went to the Dais, which is a flat, elevated area with very interesting soils. The carbon in the soil (which soil animals eat to get their energy) is very different from other soils we've looked at. This is why we wanted to go back and look some more! We took soil samples from many different places around the Dais, and we've brought it back to the lab. We will analyze the soil to learn more about the carbon and other nutrients from all over the Dais. Here is a picture of the four of us after our sampling at the Dais:


Here is a video I took from the helicopter leaving the Dais. You can see how flat the top of the Dais is, and how it drops off very steeply to the valley below.


Next, we went to the other end of Wright Valley to Lake Brownsworth. We were looking for mosses. While there are many places in Taylor Valley to find mosses, there aren't many in Wright Valley. We looked extra-hard along Lake Brownsworth, but didn't find any! We wonder what makes Wright Valley so different from Taylor Valley that keeps mosses from growing there. So we took some soil samples, and hopefully we will find out!

We want to look at other Dry Valleys, besides Wright and Taylor Valleys. Tomorrow Elizabeth and I are going to Garwood Valley and Marshall Valley, which are farther south. We will sample soil and try to find mosses there, too.

Who Owns Antarctica?

During the late 1800's and early 1900's, many countries sent explorers to Antarctica to claim pieces of the continent for their home countries. By 1950, there were 12 countries that were actively exploring or working on Antarctica. They were: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the USSR, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Most of these countries had staked claims on portions of Antarctica, many of which overlapped with one another. Many countries already had research stations in various parts of Antarctica, often in other countries' territorial claims.

Since Antarctica is such a unique continent, with such a great potential for learning and research, there was a mutual desire among these countries to maintain Antarctica as a peaceful continent. They wanted to make sure that "in the interests of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord."

In 1959, these twelve countries met to create the Antarctic Treaty. Under the Antarctic Treaty the countries agreed to cooperate and promote scientific investigation. All territorial claims were suspended. Antarctica has no permanent populations or citizens, only research bases like McMurdo. The countries agreed to have free exchange of information among each country's research groups. No military action is allowed on Antarctica, and weapons may not be kept here. The military may only provide science support on Antarctica. For example, the Air Force flies scientists to McMurdo station, and the Navy helps with shipment of supplies. There are also environmental laws, that preserve the conservation of the animals, plants, and ecosystems of Antarctica. These laws are why we need to be so careful about the water we use, where we leave our footprints, and how we interact with wildlife. Mining and nuclear explosions are banned.

Each country is responsible for making sure its citizens on Antarctica obey the Antarctic Treaty. The U.S. keeps a U.S. Marshall on base to prevent any law-breaking on American bases. However, he is not allowed to carry a weapon.

Since the Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1961, a total of 46 countries have signed it. Many different countries have research stations in different areas of Antarctica. The U.S. has three bases: McMurdo, South Pole, and Palmer (which is on the Peninsula near South America). The map below shows the research bases on Antarctica and which country supports them.
The territorial claims made before the treaty are still recorded, though they are suspended. Seven countries have territorial claims. These claims are pie-wedges of Antarctica that start at the South Pole and extend outward. McMurdo is on New Zealand's suspended territorial claim.

The flags from the original 12 countries are still displayed here at McMurdo.

Mosses: the Dense Forests of Antarctica

Not many plants grow on Antarctica, especially in the area of the Dry Valleys. However, there are in fact plants here! They are mosses. Mosses are small, simple plants that are very short and soft. They are not like the things you think of when you hear the word "plant". They do not have flowers or seeds, do not have big leaves and long stems, and do not grow very tall.

Mosses grow in most places around the world. You've seen them before, especially growing in or near streams or other wet places. There are many different types of mosses around the world. But, here in the Dry Valleys of Antarctica, there are only four species off moss. They are the only plants that grow in the soil. So, on Antarctica, moss patches are equivalent to redwood forests in the U.S.! Here is Elizabeth sitting next to an Antarctic "forest":


During the summers, mosses grow in wet areas beside streams, lakes, or snow patches. They grow very slowly, less than a millimeter each year. During the winter, when there is no sunlight for months, the mosses become dormant.

Elizabeth studies mosses. She wants to know why mosses grow in some places in the Dry Valleys, but not others. She also wants to know whether the mosses change the soil that they grow in.


To learn about the mosses and soils, we take a lot of samples. In areas where we find mosses, we take a small piece of moss and the soil beneath it. We also take soil from similar nearby areas that do not have mosses, so that we can look for differences between areas where mosses live and do not live.

We have to be very careful when we walk around these areas, so that we do not crush the mosses we want to study! We have to "rock hop" through the streams, stepping only on large rocks, and not the sediment or mosses.


We also measure the productivity of the mosses in these different areas. Mosses are plants, which means they photosynthesize and use up carbon dioxide. We measure how much carbon dioxide is being used to determine how active the mosses are. To do this, we place a plastic box over an area with mosses. This traps all of the gas in the area. The mosses are still receiving sunlight, which means they can still photosynthesize and use the carbon dioxide trapped in the box. A machine measures the concentration of carbon dioxide in the box, which tells us how quickly it is decreasing as the mosses use it up. If carbon dioxide disappears quickly, the mosses are very active. If it disappears slowly, the mosses are less active.
We still have a lot more samples to take for Elizabeth's project. We spent time last week sampling streams near Lake Fryxell. Later this week and next week, we will visit many more sites to sample for mosses along lakes, streams, and snow patches.

Oden

The Swedish icebreaker "Oden" is on town!

An icebreaker is a special type of ship that is designed to break through the ice covering the frozen water. This particular icebreaker belongs to Sweden, and is named "The Oden." The Swedes piloted the ship from Sweden in October, and came south by way of Chile. They then came to McMurdo to break a path in the sea ice, so that supply ships can access McMurdo. Oden will make a path that will allow other ships to drop off food and supplies for McMurdo station and pick up samples that the scientists want to ship back to the US. Some of our samples will be traveling on those vessels. And, next year, we'll be eating some of the food it delivers!

While the Oden was in town, we got a chance to tour the boat and learn how the ship runs.

On the top deck is the "bridge", where the controls are located to steer the ship. This is where all of the action happens! There's a lot of high-tech gadgets that help the Oden run. There are computers, GPS's, radars, and maps that the captain and crew use to direct the ship. They have sonar that allows them to see the bottom of the ocean they are traveling over. They could even potentially see sunken ships below them. The bridge is also where the communications are located. They communicate mainly by iridium phone, which are special types of satellite cell phones that we also use here on Antarctica.
This particular icebreaker works by ramming the ice. It powers ahead very quickly and runs up onto the ice in front of it, crushing the ice to pieces. It then backs up, and rams again. This is a very slow process! When the Oden is smashing a path through ice, it only travels about 5 mph total. Even though the icebreaker moves very slowly, it has to have a lot of power to ram itself into the thick ice with enough force to break it. The Oden has HUGE engines that total 25,000 horse power!

To help melt the ice to make it easier to break, huge amounts of sea water are sprayed out of the sides through huge pipes running through the ship. Water is moved through the pipes from one side of the ship to the other and sprayed onto the ice from the front of the ship. Here is Breana with the Captain of the Oden, who was one of our tour guides. Behind the Captain, is one of the pumps that moves the water across the ship.

The Oden smashed through the ice a path that leads from the sea ice edge to McMurdo's dock. After its first run through the ice, it left a trail that was only the width of one ship, with a lot of ice floating in the way. Here is a view of the path from the bridge of the Oden:
Since it's arrival, Oden has been going back-and-forth over that same path, widening it and making sure the ice is gone for future supply ships. Now, the part of the path running in front of Mt. Erebus looks like this:It has been very fun having the Oden in town. It carries 16 Swedish crew members, as well as Swedish scientists that study marine biology along the way. It's been fun having some Swedes on base! Our tour was given by members of the crew, so we could learn first-hand what it's like to live on board the Oden for three months. The Oden has many cabins for sleeping, a cafeteria and bar, and a supermarket on board for toiletries and souveniers. The Oden also has a sauna, which is an important part of a relaxing Swedish evening!

Usually, the Oden services Arctic areas, and this is its first trip to Antarctica! That means that the Swedes aboard the Oden were excited to learn about Antarctica, too. In return for letting us tour the Oden, they got a tour of McMurdo and our science labs.

Now that there is an ice-free path leading to McMurdo, supply ships will be able to deliver necessary supplies. The path it makes can also be used by the marine animals. Recently, there have been several penguin sightings on base! Penguins have been wandering into McMurdo, since they can swim right up along the path made by Oden. I think that's a far more fun benefit of the icebreaker than more dehydrated food deliveries!

When Elizabeth and I were finally picked up on Friday from Lake Fryxell by the helicopter, the weather still wasn't great. Normally we fly from Taylor Valley by cutting across the frozen Ross Sea to McMurdo on Ross Island. But, we got to fly home with my favorite pilot Mike, who took us home the long way by going out along the sea ice edge. We got to go out to where the ice sheet covering the Ross Sea ends, and open (unfrozen) water begins. At the ice edge, the thick sea ice starts breaking apart into neat shapes. There are icebergs floating in the water, islands in the distance, and lots of animals! This is where the penguin colonies hang out when they're not sitting at the nest. There are also seals and whales around there, too! It was absolutely awesome to see! So, there a lot of pictures in this blog entry from Elizabeth and I.


First, we saw lots of penguins. Most of them are Adelie penguins, but there were also some Emporer penguins. They hang out near the edge of the ice groups of hundreds. This is where they hunt for fish and krill, while the other parents are sitting on the nests back at the rookeries. You could see a group of penguins scattered at every corner in the ice.


When the helicopter comes nearby, the penguins start to run away and jump into the water. That's what they were doing in the picture in yesterday's blog entry. They swim along the ice edge, leaping through the water. This picture looks kind of upside-down, but that's the sea ice on the bottom, ending in open water, with penguins on the left swimming through the water!


On the ice, we also saw Weddell Seals. They also hang out along the ice edge to more easily find fish for food. The seals can dive very deeply and stay underwater for very long times, but sometimes they come up to the ice to rest and warm themselves in the sun. They mostly hang out alone on a chunk of ice, so they were scattered across the ice edge. I don't think they were having much luck sunning themselves, since it was so cloudy!


Then, we saw the whales. They were swimming through the water in groups, staying close to the ice edge where they could find food. We saw both Minke Whales and Orcas (Killer Whales). The orcas eat penguins and seals that are on the ice edge hunting for fish. They were staying close to the surface, since they were hunting, so we constantly saw them coming above the water.

I also got a little bit of video of some Minke whales swimming through the water. You can see two of them coming above the water on the right side of the video.



So, we had a great flight back! It was just so beautiful and interesting! Here is a picture of my FAVORITE pilot, Mike, who took us for such a great adventure:

Penguins Galore

The bad weather while we were at Fryxell last week brought in another lost guest to the camp: an Adelie penguin!
There are two main types of penguins that live near the Dry Valleys: Adelie and Emperor penguins. The penguin I saw was an Adelie. They are smaller than Emperor penguins. They are black and white (with no other colors on their face like an Emperor penguin). They also have a white circle around their eyes, which makes them look a little bit goofy.

Thousands of Adelie penguins live on the Ross Sea ice shelf and hang out along the edge of the ice where it meets the open ocean. That gives them good access to find food in the sea, without having to be too far from land for safety. Normally, I would never have been able to come this close to a penguin during my visit to Antarctica, because I do not work where penguins normally live. This guy just wandered a little too far inland and was at Lake Fryxell instead of the Ross Sea!

Penguins are aquatic birds. They have wings and feathers, but cannot fly. Their bodies are shaped in a way that is good for swimming, not flying. They have webbed feet and short wings that help them paddle and steer in the water. That means that they are very clumsy on land, though. To see a penguin walk is very funny!

Penguins are very good swimmers and spend a lot of time in the water. They swim so that they can find food to eat. Most penguins eat fish or small shrimp-like animals called krill. However, the water is very dangerous, because there are other animals living in the ocean that will eat penguins! Leopard seals are one type of animal that will eat penguins on Antarctica. Penguins need to live near both land for safety and water for food, so they spend a lot of time on the ice shelf edge by the ocean. You can see groups of them on the ice edge if you fly over the sea in a helicopter. Here is a photo Elizabeth took from a helicopter:

On land or ice, however, penguins are not afraid of being eaten. There are no predators of penguins on land. So, penguins are not usually afraid of people, because they feel safe on land. This particular penguin that we met at Lake Fryxell was not afraid of us at all. Elizabeth and I were walking back to camp, and the Adelie called to us! He did not run away, so we sat and watched him for a while. He sat and watched us, too! Here is a short video of the penguin talking to us while we watched each other:



Penguins live exclusively in the southern hemisphere, mostly around Antarctica. There are no penguins near the North Pole! You will NEVER see a penguin and a polar bear together, no matter what the Coke commercials show. Polar bears live in the North, and penguins in the South.

Penguins live in large groups called colonies. There are many different species of penguins, each of which live and behave slightly differently. The Emporer Penguin's life was made very famous by the movie March of the Penguins. Adelie penguins, like the guy I saw at Fryxell, are slightly different.

Adelie penguins spend most of the year on the sea ice, where it is slightly warmer during the winter. During the Antarctic spring (around October), they return to land to breed. They return to the exact spot where they were born to mate and lay eggs. These places where a penguin colony lives during breeding season are called rookeries. There are several penguin rookeries in this area of Antarctica, where millions of penguins live. Penguin parents make nests of stone, and parents take turns sitting on the eggs to keep them warm. Penguins usually lay two eggs at a time, which hatch within about one month. The chicks grow and learn to swim, and are ready to leave the rookery before winter comes.


Unfortunately, I won't be able to visit a penguin rookery while I'm here, because you need special permits to be in those areas. Only people that study penguins are able to go there, so that there are not too many humans disturbing the penguins. Sometimes, however, they wander into areas where humans are living, such as McMurdo or the Dry Valleys. That is always a special treat for us!

Weather and other amazing sites!

I have not been able to post for the past few days. Just after my last post, I took a helicopter from Lake Bonney back to Lake Fryxell, where I was working the previous week. I met Elizabeth there to do help her study the mosses in the streams. Just after we got to camp F6 on Lake Fryxell, bad weather moved in. The wind broke the antenna for the satellite internet! No helicopter could fly in the storm, so nobody could come fix the antenna or pick us up to take us back to McMurdo. So, I didn't have any internet connection for several days. Yesterday, there was finally a break in the storm. A helicopter took Elizabeth and I back to McMurdo yesterday evening.

Although the bad weather made it sort of difficult to work, it did create some very beautiful scenery!
Weather on Antarctica is very interesting. It is the coldest, driest, and windiest of all the continents. During the winter, winds usually come from the South Pole, bringing very cold and snowy weather. During the summer (right now), wind and weather usually come from the north, bringing warmer air. Warm is relative, though. The warm summer winds are around freezing temperature!

The storm we had this past week was from the north. The air it brought was fairly warm, and the temperature stayed above freezing. However, it brought winds around 30-40 mph (which is why our internet broke). There was also a good bit of snow. At McMurdo, there was about a foot of snow on the ground. This isn't a big amount of snow by Vermont or Wyoming standards, but it is a lot of snow for Antarctica, which is a big desert! Out in the Dry Valleys, though, there was only a dusting of snow.

The clouds that come in with a storm are usually low to the ground. This low cloud layer is called a "ceiling". When the ceiling is too low, the helicopters will not fly because the pilots will not be able to see. That is why we were stuck at Lake Fryxell!

The weather in the Dry Valleys can be very patchy. It can be cloudy like this at Lake Fryxell, near the sea, but very sunny at Lake Bonney, further inland. This all depends on how the clouds move in the sky. This picture of Lake Fryxell basin shows you exactly how far the storm clouds came in this week. You can see that it on the left, the mountains are covered with a dusting of snow, and the snow gradually disappears towards the right where the cloud didn't go.

There is also a special type of wind on Antarctica called katabatic winds. These are not weather systems, like you're used to having. They are a type of surface wind. Katabatic winds come from the south, so are made up of very cold air. Cold air usually stays lower to the ground, because it is denser than warm air. Gravity keeps the cold air on the bottom. When the cold air is moving along the ground, it will get pushed higher in the air over mountains and other slopes. When the wind reaches the top of the slope, it may meet warm air traveling from the north. The cold air get pushed back down to the ground by warm air and rushes down the slopes into the valley. This rush of cold air is called a katabatic wind. They can reach 100 mph or more, and are often very destructive! They can blow away tents, buildings, flags, and people! I haven't experienced one of these yet, and I'm very glad!

As the storm clouds slowly leave the area, it becomes safer for the helicopters to fly. The storm is still in the area, but the weather was much better in Taylor Valley! Here is a picture from Lake Fryxell just before we got picked up. The clouds were still there, but the ceiling was not quite so low and we could see the sun and the tops of the mountain peaks again!
Learn more about Antarctic weather on Antarctic Connection or Wikipedia.

A lot (besides weather) has happened while we were in the field without internet. I will tell you all about it over the next few days!